Distance Education Barker (1995) points out that the federal and state governments have increased their support of distance
education in recent years, which indicates that it is an accepted method for education, and it is expected to continue to grow significantly in coming years. With increased governmental support and growing popularity,
distance education needs to investigated in the areas of the quality of the instructional environment and of instructional effectiveness.
Historically, distance education has been a process of
teacher-centered transmission of instruction to learners. There typically has been a lack of implementing the concept of learner-centered education in distance education, an approach based on a focus on the learner as
an active agent in learning process. As Thornburg (1991) pointed out, one of the reasons for a lack of actively engaged learning environments at a distance, is that the tools were not available until recently to do much
more than deliver a packaged education to learners. Now, computers, computer networks, and telecommunications have opened new doors, allowing for more interactive, integrated learning environments.
The most
prominent of emerging technology-based instruction is what Barker (1995) called "network-focused distance learning," which is based on computer-mediated-communication (CMC). This can support communication over
distances, either asynchronously or synchronously. A recent platform used for CMC is the worldwide network of computers, the Internet, and the hypermedia-based World Wide Web (Web), which is the most widespread network
on the Internet. The merging of CMC, such as computer conferencing, with platforms such as the Web, bring to distance education a technology-mediated learning environment with unparalleled potential for interactivity
(Collis, 1997). Computer conferencing allows communication anywhere in the world and at times that are convenient for the user. The Web connects users to a vast amount of
Internet-based resources, and its hypermedia
nature can include text, audio, graphics, and video, and can all be "hyper-linked." Therefore, Web-based conferencing is emerging as a medium that can offer a wide range of interactivity for learners.
CMC tools
support networked instructional activities, and support both time and distance insensitivity (Barker and Dickson, 1994). Gonzalez (1995) used the phrase "time and place independence" to describe the asynchronous facet
of CMC for distance education. It is also easy to facilitate group processes, such as collaboration, debates and such, as a part of distance education (Nipper, 1989). The interaction between students becomes the focus.
An increased facilitation of student interaction, as opposed to a traditional teacher-centered transmission to students, is moving the distance education paradigm toward networking via the Internet and Web, which
provide a "many-to-many" communication setup (Harasim, 1990).
Over the years, as Barker (1995) concluded, with each advancement in technology-mediated instruction has come a better and higher level of
interaction in CMC-based instruction. The interactivity component seems to be a core element. As for instructional design, these issues have become a part of a new focus. Instructional designers, researchers, educators,
and software developers continue to ask:
Therefore, describing the nature of the interaction in distance education environments and its relationship to theory becomes a central issue.
Many researchers (Cookson, 1995; Kirby
& Boak, 1987; Cookson & Chang, 1994) suggested that we need to go beyond common research in this area that has tended to focus on the following: (a) structural and learner characteristics, (b) learner
satisfaction, (c) outcomes, and (d) students' perceptions and impressions. There seems to be plenty of research on numerous features other than the actual learning processes. If, as Bruner posited (1966), learning is in
the activity, then learning may be contained within the interaction. This places emphasis on the learning processes and how they might relate to theory.
Gibson (1995) in summarizing distance education research,
stated that there is a need for research which "focuses on learners and learning" (p. 1). She suggested that research specifically examine:
learning strategies related to interaction;
the process of meaning-making;
how context impacts learning processes; and,
formation and operation of learning communities.
In general, distance education
continues to search for ways to link theory to the various components of learning at a distance. Keegan (1986) called for more attention to theoretically informed instruction that is specifically based on distance
education research. Distance education needs specific focus on the variety of delivery systems, and the fact that technology is always advancing makes linking theory to distance learning even more difficult. Holmberg
(1989) stated that to bring greater confidence to distance education, instructional environments that involve "learners at a distance" should be grounded in sound theoretical bases. He summarized distance education as a
trial and error endeavor, with little attention to theoretical underpinnings; the linkage between theory and practice is considered fragile.
It appears from the literature that just in the past
couple of decades educators have begun to seriously link educational theory to distance learning, distance learners, and distance education as a whole. For example, studies in distance education have examined student
engagement in learning processes. Some of these studies have investigated these aspects: (a) collaboration and sharing of knowledge (Roberts, 1988), (b) linking learners to information and peer support (Harasim, 1990),
and (c) student engagement in general relative to various types of delivery (Marland, Patching & Putt 1992; Bernt & Bugbee, 1993). In most studies, it was concluded that increased interaction was related to
positive results, and to improved learning. A second area of research focused on students' approaches to learning, that is, cognitive strategies, where the focus was on the following: use of concept mapping, information
memorization, organization of materials, and the perception of teacher-feedback (Harper & Kember, 1986; Ekins, 1992). Results showed, again, that the greater the level of interactivity between students and students
and teacher, the greater the performance and student satisfaction. Some researchers (Perraton, 1988; Keegan, 1986) have generated overarching theoretical frameworks of distance education helping to organize this
ever-changing field.
As learning theories gain success in general education, such as constructivism, distance education researchers have discussed the potential usefulness of these methods and concepts
that are emerging from classroom contexts. Constructivism is being discussed and tested in distance education. Studies provide evidence that constructivist based environments, which are student-centered, contribute to
student satisfaction and learning (Garrison, 1993; Candy, 1991; LeBaron & Bragg, 1994). Constructivist instructional strategies, such as situated learning, have been found to be suitable for learning at a distance
(Hummel, 1993), where learning occurs in contexts of social activity. That is, the cognitive processes of learning are situated in the interactions with other people, in such activities as problem solving. These are
examples of the wide range of constructivist concepts, and they help to illuminate how distance education needs to apply theory-based strategies to particular types of instructional technology.
The
linkage of learning theory to distance education is important and remains a salient research issue. The future of distance education, Saba (1995) concluded, lies in the integration of prevailing theories of learning,
social theory, and communication theory with the specific distance education environments. Conclusively, research is needed that provides empirical data that links the learning behaviors of students in distance
education settings to sound pedagogical theory.
